The author conducted several interviews with these women, and a smaller selection of men to gain perspective on why it is customary to wear pale foundation when outside the house.
There was a spectrum of women interviewed in the middle class. Most of them were homemakers who were married to a 'salary man', a white collar worker. However, some of the women were single mothers, housewives employed at part time jobs, others were office workers. The author made a point of addressing that each woman had their own unique sense of style and personal identity, but each felt it was their social role to put on foundation before appearing outside the house. 'Gender Ideology' comes up a lot in the article, and how there's an expectation for women to embody the cultural definition of femininity, and men to embody the Japanese perception of masculinity.
Where did the white face makeup come from? Prior to 1868, men and women of nobility would powder their faces white to signify social standing. Once Western culture began to have a sway on Japan, men were encouraged by the government to cut off their top-knot hairstyle, adopt western haircuts/clothing, and no longer powder their faces. Because the men were responsible for learning about Western culture and adapting it, Japanese women were banned from wearing short hairstyles, and were pressured to maintain the culture of dress and manners that belonged to Japan.
What was once a look for nobility (specifically the women who belonged to the caste of the Samurai), was now applied to women of all social spectrum's.
Compulsory education was introduced, and at school. girls of all classes were educated to believe that the feminine virtues of middle-class women were among the most important qualifications for a good Japanese national. (Ashikari, 9 )
From 1912-1926, varieties of Western fashion became available to the middle-class, as a result the kimono, which was iconic of middle-class women, now came to represent Japanese culture as a whole. The traditional hairstyles and white makeup only appeared during special occasions, and Western makeup application gradually became more common, thus use of translucent white powders instead of the lead based white powder that was traditionally used. The lines between the classes also blurred when middle-class women began to join the workforce, but the need to distinguish between the "good wives and wise mothers" and the working girls remained.
The Western styles of makeup using fasle eyelashes, eyeliner and eyeshadow, were fine for girls working in bars, as hostesses, and show business professions. However, it was not considered appropriate for the middle class woman.
There was a certain style of makeup that made all women look like katei-fujin, proper housewives. [...] This everyday white face, which was separated form the traditional white face, came to serve as a symbol of the traditional ideal feminine virtues in everyday life, as the traditional face did on the special formal occasions in women's lives. (Ashikari, 11)
Coming of age ceremonies, weddings, and other special occasions were appropriate for the completely white face of the Meiji era. Skin-tone shades of foundation grew in popularity after WWII, but the concept of the pale face representing the gentler sex in Japanese society remained the same.
Ashikari used research on Western women's makeup habits, resulting in a general consensus that Western women used makeup for self satisfaction by improving their looks, and to impress or fit in with their peers. On the contrary, Japanese women continue to use foundation because it is considered 'right' or 'normal'. Unlike Western women, Japanese women do not buy and apply as much lipstick and eye makeup, yet foundation is essential. "For most mature middle-class Japanese women, 'making up' actually means putting on foundation (Ashikari, 12)"
The Japanese foundations come in multiple undertones, and coupled with certain skin tones they'll wipe out the coloring of the face. The paled face of a woman has become ingrained in Japanese culture as symbolism for feminine virtue, to the point where it feels abnormal to some of the women to leave the house without foundation on. A few of the working women in the study confessed they were approached by male superiors at work and were berated for not wearing make up.
It's considered rude by Japanese standards for mature women to go out in public without being made up, because it rejects traditional values of femininity in their culture. Only outlandish or eccentric women go without makeup, and those who conform to the traditions are being 'polite' to everyone they meet outside their house.
On the other hand, if a woman presents a "feminine" made-up white face, this means she is being polite and respectful toward the people she meets, especially the men. Presenting the white face is to represent certain gender relations that middle-class women are expected to and willing to play their part in. (Ashikari, 13)
The Japanese words for inside/home "uchi", and going out/outside "soto", are reoccurring in the article. Many women do not wear makeup at home, and its not apart of the housewife's gender requirements to wear it while at home. The expressions "uchi" and "soto" are often coupled with referring to gender roles. Women who work with their husbands on farm or running a business have equal responsibility of pulling in income, however, those who are married to 'salary men' have the luxury of running the home and relying on their husband's income. The dependency of their gender is considered more feminine, and the pale complexion expresses this feminine virtuosity.
There are negative connotations to the housewife image, though. 'Shufu' is a term that directly translates at 'housewife' in English, but has a connotation of laziness. While men are working hard out in the world for a company, the media often depicts housewives as lazy whose form of employment is an undeserved luxury. In fact, there is a pattern women are expected to follow; to go to university, to get a job in an office as a worker, meet a man and get married thus becoming a housewife.
The women are often not given credit for their accomplishments in their education, their work ethic while employed, or the time and difficulties it's taken to achieve their status as a middle-class house wife. Women are often interpreted as incapable or incompetent by Japanese males, and women who have careers (and not husbands) are undesirable for marriage. These stereotypes are continually perpetuated by the media, by women, and men.
Top executives very likely only know women as their wives or those who wait upon them including women staff members. Women as equal work partners is a concept beyond their familiar world. A Japan Labor Institute survey of men conducted in 1991 revealed that the most common view of women colleagues is as "considerate supporters." The same survey showed that only 26% of men regard women as "able partners." An amazing 15% said they have no particular impression of women whatsoever. (Iwao, 1)
When the article was written in the 1990's, it was still unlikely that a woman was able to become a doctor, a lawyer, or a 'salary man' herself without being perceived as having lost her femininity. Discrimination in the workplace continues as women grow older, and it's greatly difficult to women to find employment after their 30's. The whole thing is a catch 22, because men in companies cannot take women seriously in the workplace, knowing they'll quit after they're married. Working women can't take their job seriously, knowing the company will anticipate them quitting in order to get married.
The journal article continues on to say that men need to recognize that women's subordination to men is voluntary, and that having an attractive or visually-pleasing housewife helps the salary's man's social standing and masculinity.
Encountering a woman who isn't wearing makeup makes men uneasy, as if she will instigate a conflict or challenge their social norms. They feel at ease when women put effort into their appearance, because they're upholding their gender roles, thus making society easier to navigate. 'Wild women' are described by the female interviewees as women who have an overt sexuality to their appearance. Tanned skin, large breasts, athletic body, curly hair or long hair, all are elements of a 'wild woman', meanwhile the pale, demure, pure, and inexperienced behaviors of 'cute' women are more in tune with traditional Japanese gender roles of submissive women. Women who tan themselves during the summer will continue to wear paler shades of foundation at the office, because they know that appearing at work with a tan would appear disrespectful. Appearing ambitious or smart in the office is also considered disrespectful towards their male coworkers.
Much of the article was really difficult for me to process, since I have a Western perspective. The closest I could relate it to possibly the experiences of women battling sexism in the workplace after World War II in the US.
In the last article I read, there were many viewpoints on why women chose to wear makeup in public/at work, and why some chose not to. I think the major similarities is that there is a social obligation to be feminine in both cultures, and that it seems to make interactions with male coworkers smoother if the woman is wearing makeup. So gender ideologies are still at play in both cultures.
Maybe the differences is that, the Japanese feel that they're trying to preserve their culture, while America's identity as a country and our sense of values constantly is evolving. I think as the more Westernized, younger generations of Japanese kids grow up, there is a possibility that the strict lines between gender will fade.
Younger Japanese women seem to be very interested in Western beauty and fashion, all the while making it an identity of their own, therefore my prediction is that the whitening of the face with light foundation will grow out of style. I think Japanese women will always appreciate being feminine, but they'll express it in ways less apparent than a pale mask of obedience.
References used:
Mikiko Ashikari
Urban Middle-Class Japanese Women and Their White Faces: Gender, Ideology, and Representation
Ethos
Vol. 31, No. 1 (Mar., 2003), pp. 3-37 Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Anthropological Association http://www.jstor.org/stable/3651863
Iwao, Sumiko. "The New Lifestyles of Japanese Women." Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Japan. Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Japan, 09 1996. Web. 3 Nov 2011. http://www.mofa.go.jp/j_info/japan/opinion/iwao.html
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